ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Sincerely appreciated is the valuable help and advice given by foresters and others in the Appalachian Hardwood Region in the preparation of this booklet. These include R. H. Morris, Vice President, Gauley Mountain Coal Company, Ansted, W. Va.; Luther 0. Griffith, Griffith Lumber Co., Huntington, W. Va., Chairman of the Forestry Committee of Appalachian Hardwood Manufacturers, Inc.; John Tillinghast, Consulting Forester, Mount Hope, W. Va.; C. H. Clendening, Secretary-Treasurer, and H. E. Everley, Trade Extension Department Manager, Appalachian Hardwood Manufacturers, Inc.; and staff members of American Forest Products Industries, Inc., Washington, D. C.

Especially acknowledged is the work of Miss Adele Alice Griffith of Huntington, W. Va., who

prepared the drawings and illustrations for the text.

FOREWORD

Many books, bulletins and pamphlets have been written concerning forestry in the United States. Their use in schools has usually been dependent upon the teacher having had a course in forestry or conservation in order to present it to the students. This booklet is an attempt to give to the teacher and to the student in plain, non-technical language, a step-by-step story of the forests, forestry and logging, and their relation to the people of the Appalachian Hardwood Region.

In the Appalachian Hardwood Region we are becoming increasingly aware of the economic importance of our forests. The extensive lumber operations are dependent upon good timber for their source of raw material. While much of the economy of the country is based on the production of coal, an adequate timber supply for props, headers, ties and other material is essential to maintain this important industry.

In the following pages of this booklet is a brief and concise picture of forestry and our forests. Through study of its pages we can picture the forests of the past and the problems of the early loggers, as well as the new forest economy with which we are confronted today. With our frontiers gone and our second-growth stands of timber before us, we are growing these trees for use through adequate fire control, proper cutting practices, and proper utilization. I am sure that through the reading of this book, teachers and students alike will obtain an enlightened view of the importance of our forests in our everyday lives and the problems before us in maintaining a productive stand of trees.

I hope that this booklet will find an important place in the school curricula. The school children of today are the ones who will manage our timber stands of tomorrow. A basic understanding of the timber stands and wood needs of the region will help them to guide the destiny of these forests along a sound course.

—H. D. Bennett

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Forests - Past, Present and Future 6

2. Forests and Our Daily Lives 10

3. The Growth of Trees 15

4. Important Trees of the Appalachian Hardwood Region 19

5. Products of the Forest 26

6. Care of Our Forests 30

7. Animals of the Forest 33

8. Trees - Floods, Soil and Climate 36

9. Forest Enemies 39

Chapter One

FORESTS — PAST, PRESENT AND FUTURE

In writing the history of lumbering in America it is hard to agree just where and when it began, but there is one point that is proven: the harvesting of trees is the oldest business in America. The first form of trade between America and Europe was in forest products.

History relates that shortly before the year 1000, a hardy race of sailors and explorers known as the Vikings, or Norsemen, sailed over the sea to Greenland, where they established a colony. Greenland had no trees, so a group of these explorers, under Leif Ericson, sailed westward in search of timber. They needed wood to build their homes, repair their ships and furnish fuel for heat. They finally came to the shores of what is now labrador. There they found trees growing. They cut some of the timber and loaded it on their ships and carried it to Greenland.

The following year, the men returned and set up a logging camp. Then for many years they furnished the colonies on Greenland with the products of these forests. On later voyages, it is said, the Norsemen came as far south as New England and returned with cargoes of forest products.

In those early days, forests covered about one-half of what is now the United States. They stretched from Maine to Florida and across the country as far as the Great Plains. Most of the Great Plains was grassland, with trees growing only along some of the stream banks. Near the Rocky Mountains another area of timberland stretched from Canada south to Mexico and west to the Pacific Ocean.

Many explorers and settlers came to the shores of the New World. Some sought riches in gold, spices and timber, and others came to find freedom and to establish homes. On this frontier, as on every timber frontier, the settler took from the great forest the wood he needed to build his house, furniture, fences, and for his other needs. And, like the Indians with whom he shared the land, he hunted for food in the shade of the forest.

The timber found along the coastal plain could be sold in England. Oak was needed for building English ships, and the "King's Broad Arrow" became

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a familiar mark on the tall pine trees picked for masts. Trees so marked could not be cut for any other purpose. The sale of this timber was a great help to the struggling settler.

Although the forest was the settler's friend, it was also his enemy. He had to fight the stubborn trees, burning and chopping clearings in which to grow his crops. As more settlers came into the country and the demand for food and farm crops increased, it became necessary to clear more land and to push the forest back. As a result the forest land today is about one-half as large as it was when the original settlers arrived.

The forests of the United States are made up of many kinds of trees. In all there are more than 800 varieties. Forests of the nation cover several large areas, each containing different kinds of trees, depending upon the natural conditions found where they grow. Generally, trees of the West are evergreens, and those of the East are hardwoods or broadleaf trees.

The forest areas of the United States are:

1. THE NORTHERN OR EASTERN FOREST. This forest once covered all of the northeastern section of the United States. It extended west through Minnesota, and south through the mountains to Georgia, and made up about one-eighth of the forest area of this country. As much of the land was cleared for farming, the forest area is much smaller today. The northern part of this area is made up chiefly of evergreen trees, which have needle-like or scale-like leaves. These trees do not lose all their leaves each fall, but remain green the year round. Examples of this kind of tree are white pine, spruce,' hemlock and cedar. Hardwood trees grow mainly in the southern part of this region. These trees have broad, flat leaves which usually fall off in the autumn. Examples of these are the oak,.cherry, birch, maple, yellow poplar and basswood.

(a) Within the northern forest is an important sub-region known as the "Appalachian Hardwood Region." This area extends through the Appalachian mountains from Pennsylvania to Georgia and is justly famous for its production of hardwood lumber. In it are some of the finest yellow poplar, white and red oak, basswood, maple and other species to be found.

2. THE CENTRAL HARDWOOD FOREST. It is located between the northern and southern forests.

It extends through the central part of the country as far west as the Great Plains, east to the foothills of the mountains, north to the Lake States and south into Tennessee. It lies generally in the flat river bottoms, and rolling hills of the Middle West. Its size has teen greatly reduced by clearing land for farms, and today is one of our smaller forest areas. Hardwoods make up the main type of trees in this area, examples of which are oak, sugar maple, yellow poplar, white ash and basswood.

3. THE SOUTHERN FOREST. Lying south of the central hardwood forest, it contains most of the southeastern states extending up the Atlantic Coast to Maryland, up the Mississippi River to Illinois, and west into Texas. This contains about one-third of the wooded area of this country. Southern yellow pine and cypress are the important evergreen trees, but hardwoods are also important to this area. The principal hardwoods are the oak, gum, cottonwood, hickory, pecan, yellow poplar and willow.

4. THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN FOREST. It covers the slopes of the Rocky Mountains and extends from Canada to Mexico. The forest land is broken up by mountains and grasslands. Only a small part of the area supports commercial logging operations. The most important trees are ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, western white pine, lodgepole pine and western larch.

5. THE PACIFIC COAST FOREST. Lying on the western side of the Rocky Mountains it extends from Canada to Mexico. Trees found in this area are the Douglas fir, sugar pine, western cedar, western hemlock, the true fir and the giant sequoia and redwood trees.

It was during the 19th century, when America attained its greatest population growth, that large areas of the land were cleared of trees. Uncontrolled forest fires also destroyed much tree growth. In those early days some loggers followed poor cutting practices. In many instances the logger was the only landowner and business enterprise furnishing taxes to a particular area. Some tax assessors took advantage of this situation and taxed the logger for more than the value of his timber. In order to protect himself, the logger had to complete his operation as quickly as possible and this helped contribute to the "cut out

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and get out" policy, as we call it now.

Also forestry was a little known science in early America. Many of the foresters who practiced in the United States were trained in European methods by European teachers. These methods were not successful here because the forest conditions were not the same as in Europe. However, foresters continued to study local conditions and soon realized that a balance was essential between silvi-cultural practice and economic needs. Today many foresters are employed by wood-using industries and are working toward the one goal of protecting, managing and harvesting our forests so they will always produce trees for our use.

STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

ECONOMY — the consideration of costs and returns in producing materials.

SETTLER — one who settles, becomes fixed, or establishes himself in a new colony or area.

EVERGREENS or CONIFERS — trees that have needle-like or scale-like leaves and usually do not shed them in the fall but remain green the year around. They also bear seeds in cones. These trees are also called softwoods.

HARDWOODS — trees with broad leaves that usually drop off in the fall.

KING'S BROAD ARROW — a mark in the form of an arrow on the trunk of a tree to show that it was reserved for the King's Navy.

COASTAL PLAIN — the portion of land lying between the ocean and the foothills of mountains.

SILVICULTURE — the science of producing and tending a forest. Through the practice of silviculture repeated crops of timber can be grown on the same land year after year.

FOREST PRODUCTS — products that come from trees in a natural state or converted state by mechanical or chemical means.

GREAT PLAINS — starting on the east with the Mississippi Valley, west to the Rocky Mountains.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:

1. Who were the first white men to come to America? Why did they come to this country?

2. How much of our country was covered with trees at that time?

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3. What use did England make of the forest products from the New World?

4. What are the five big forests in the United States? Which of these forests occur in our state?

5. What is an important subdivision of the Northern Forest?

6. How much of the original forest remains today? Explain what happened.

7. What was wrong with our early attempts at the practice of forestry?

8. How is this being corrected today?

SOME THINGS TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON

1. Color a map of the United States showing where our forests grow.

2. Get a history book and study in more detail the early settlement of the country.

3. Find out the names of five trees growing in the Appalachian Hardwood Region.

Chapter Two

FORESTS AND OUR DAILY LIVES

The Appalachian Hardwood Region is the area lying in the Allegheny Mountains between Pennsylvania and Georgia. Within its boundaries grow some of the finest stands of hardwood timber in the country. For many years after the settlement of the coastal plains the Allegheny Mountains were considered the far west. Until the discovery of Cumberland Gap in 1750, few pioneers attempted to cross the rugged mountain ranges. Hunters, who ventured into the area, returned with glowing tales of the country's beauty. They reported clear streams flowed through the mountain valleys, game was plentiful and trading with the Indians was easy. With the discovery of this relatively easy

route over the mountains, a way was opened for settlement.

Daniel Boone, an original pioneer of this area, in 1779 was hired by the Virginia Legislature to build a road through the Gap into the country beyond. He built what became known as the "Wilderness Road." From 1779 to 1795 a steady stream of settlers flowed acress the mountains, but few people stopped to settle in the rugged mountains of the Appalachian territory. Most of the people continued on to the low, rolling hills and river bottom lands of central Kentucky and beyond.

Farther south, settlers from North Carolina traveled over the mountains and down the rivers by flat and keel boats to settle in Tennessee and western Kentucky. One of this important group was the Transylvania Company led by Richard Henderson. The rugged mountains discouraged any great settlement, and most of the group moved beyond the mountains to establish new homes.

The results of this migration can be seen in the timber stands of the country today. Within the Appalachian territory there still are vast, unbroken forest areas. Farther west beyond the mountains in Kentucky and Tennessee, the forest land is in small tracts and farm woodlands, due to settlers needing more land to produce farm crops.

When steamboat navigation started on the Ohio River, travel left the overland route, and the mountainous section became more or less isolated from the outside world. However, scattered logging operations were active near the river courses as early as 1825. But it was not until 25 years after the close of the "War Between the States," when mineral deposits of coal and iron were discovered, that the railroads pushed into the mountain sections with new transportation systems. The coming of the railroads offered an outlet to the outside markets for the timber in this territory. Great band sawmills were set up to saw the yellow poplar, white oak and other species which grew in abundance in the region. This wood was used for paneling, furniture, flooring and other items requiring material with close grain, fine texture and figure.

The rugged nature of the country discouraged any extensive land clearing for farms. The conditions of soil, climate and topography, how-

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on paper made from wood, and many of the plastic products today are made with wood via chemical processes.

In the Appalachian region much of the economy is based on the production of coal. Large amounts of timber in the form of headers, props, ties, wedges and cross bars are needed to mine the coal. It takes about four board feet of -wood to mine a ton of coal, and over 200,000,000 tons are produced annually in the Appalachian Hardwood Region.

In the cutting, sawing and processing of logs in the Appalachian region many jobs are furnished for people. Men are needed to cut the trees, saw them into logs and haul them to sawmills. There the logs are cut into lumber and timbers. Other plants process them into flooring, panels, furniture and various finished products. The wages paid the men furnish money for rent, food, clothes and the necessities of life. Altogether the forest industries of this region employ more than 50,000 men. Thus you can see that the forests of this region play an important part in the daily lives of the people. Coal miners have an interest in the forest too. Their jobs are dependent on the timber used in mining coal, and by preventing forest fires the trees are protected and allowed to grow for future use.

Every day the forests also affect the lives of school children. And you, the men and women of tomorrow, can and do affect forestry. Although forestry practices in the territory are making rapid strides, the future progress will depend on your cooperation and support. Take care of the forests and they in turn will take care of you. Trees were put here to use. Timber is our only natural renewable resource and when our forests are properly managed and protected they can supply all of our needs for the future.

In addition to supplying wood for our use, forests help hold water in the soil, which prevents floods; forests furnish food and cover for our wildlife; and forests too furnish places of recreation and enjoyment for people.

STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

VIRGIN FOREST — a forest from which trees have never been cut.

GROWING SEASON — the time of year when a tree grows. This is usually during the spring, summer

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on paper made from wood, and many of the plastic products today are made with wood via chemical processes.

In the Appalachian region much of the economy is based on the production of coal. Large amounts of timber in the form of headers, props, ties, wedges and cross bars are needed to mine the coal. It takes about four board feet of -wood to mine a ton of coal, and over 200,000,000 tons are produced annually in the Appalachian Hardwood Region.

In the cutting, sawing and processing of logs in the Appalachian region many jobs are furnished for people. Men are needed to cut the trees, saw them into logs and haul them to sawmills. There the logs are cut into lumber and timbers. Other plants process them into flooring, panels, furniture and various finished products. The wages paid the men furnish money for rent, food, clothes and the necessities of life. Altogether the forest industries of this region employ more than 50,000 men. Thus you can see that the forests of this region play an important part in the daily lives of the people. Coal miners have an interest in the forest too. Their jobs are dependent on the timber used in mining coal, and by preventing forest fires the trees are protected and allowed to grow for future use.

Every day the forests also affect the lives of school children. And you, the men and women of tomorrow, can and do affect forestry. Although forestry practices in the territory are making rapid strides, the future progress will depend on your cooperation and support. Take care of the forests and they in turn will take care of you. Trees were put here to use. Timber is our only natural renewable resource and when our forests are properly managed and protected they can supply all of our needs for the future.

In addition to supplying wood for our use, forests help hold water in the soil, which prevents floods; forests furnish food and cover for our wildlife; and forests too furnish places of recreation and enjoyment for people.

STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

VIRGIN FOREST — a forest from which trees have never been cut.

GROWING SEASON — the time of year when a tree grows. This is usually during the spring, summer

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Chapter Three

THE GROWTH OF TREES

Little drops of water,
Little grains of sand,
Make the mighty ocean,
And the pleasant land.

As you walk through the forest and gaze upon the beautiful trees, it is hard to realize that they were once tiny seeds. All trees begin as tiny seeds. Even the great oak was once a small acorn about the size of a marble. Inside the acorn food and water are stored. This food and water is used for the first few days of growth until the young seedling, which sprouts from the acorn, can produce roots, stem, and leaves to make its own food.

While nature provides everything to make the seed grow, nature also offers great opposition. From the beginning each seed must compete with its neighbor for water, food, sunlight, and space in which to sprout and grow. Trees produce thousands of seeds. Only a few of them grow into big trees. Many are eaten by squirrels and mice. Others are destroyed by insects. Others never find suitable soil and moisture conditions under which to sprout and grow.

All seeds are alike in some ways. Nature first protects them with a strong cover with food stored inside. When the seed starts growing part of it goes down inside the earth and is called the root; another part grows out of the ground and is called the stem on which leaves form. The roots take water out of the soil, and the leaves absorb sunlight and moisture from the air.

Nature gives all seeds a particular characteristic. An acorn will always grow into an oak tree, and a pine seedling will always grow into a pine tree.

Some seeds ripen on the tree and fall off in the spring and begin to grow right away. Others ripen and fall off in the autumn. Such seeds must wait until winter is over and spring comes before they start growing. When warm weather comes all of nature begins growing.

Some seeds fall off a tree and begin growing where they fall. Others are carried by the wind,

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birds, animals, and water to distant places. The maple, yellow poplar and ash have wings that make it easier for the wind to blow them to distant places. Squirrels carry acorns from under the tree and bury them in other areas.

But in order for all seeds to sprout and develop they must have food, water, sunlight, and warmth. Until it gets roots, a stem above ground, and some leaves or needles, the seed uses the food stored in its shell to make growth. As the roots go deeper into the soil they absorb water and minerals from the soil and send these up into the stem. The leaves act as a chemical laboratory for they take carbon dioxide and water from the air, and make starches and sugar on which the tree feeds. The leaves also give off oxygen which purifies the air. Water is also given off by the leaves in. large quantities.

All trees manufacture more food than they need for growing. The extra food is stored in the tree cells for use in the spring when it puts out leaves, flowers, and seeds.

A tree grows upward from the tips of the branches, downward from the roots, and outward from the trunk. The roots anchor the tree to the ground, and the trunk gives support to the branches.

As the tree grows from the food it manufactures, it adds new layers of wood to its trunk. These layers are called annual rings, and may be used to tell the age of the tree.

The rings are made up of two parts: spring-wood, formed in the spring; and summerwood, grown in the summer. The springwood is formed with cells or tubes running up and down the length of the tree to transport the water the tree needs. The summerwood is made of smaller cells in larger numbers which give strength to the stem of the tree. Fast growing hardwood trees produce more summerwood than springwood. Slow growing hardwood trees have less summerwood. These trees are fine in texture, close in grain, and are easily made into useful and beautiful products. Growing conditions found in the Appalachian region give trees the characteristics desirable in high quality hardwoods.

This is a description of the cross section of a tree trunk which is also called the stem of a tree. The outside is called the outer bark. This is dead material and is the outside protec-

16

tion for the growing part of the .tree. Next is the inner bark, composed cf living cells, through which water and food is conducted down into the tree, giving life to its roots and other parts. Next is the cambium layer, which you cannot see in a cross section without a magnifying glass. The cambium layer is made up of cells, some of which later make bark and some of which make wood. Next is the sapwood, also composed mostly of living cells through which food and water are collected by the roots and sent- up to the branches and leaves.

We next come to the heartwood of the tree, which is in the middle of the stem. This is composed of dead cells, but strong enough to give the tree strength to stand. The heartwood was once sapwood but when new sapwood formed, the older sapwood died and formed the heartwood of the tree.

As you study the cross section you will note that some of the annual rings are wider apart than others. When you see a wide space between the rings this means the tree grew faster at that time because it got more sunlight, water, and food. Lack of sunlight, food, water and even forest fires slow down the growth of the tree and make the rings closer together and narrow in width.

A tree grows during late spring, summer, and early fall, which is called the growing season. Conditions of soil and climate in the Appalachian territory are well-adapted for the growing of trees.

After a tree is full grown, it is ripe, and should be cut, before it begins to rot. From the wood of the tree can be made furniture, paneling, crossties for railroad tracks, or timbers for use in a coal mine. When mature trees are cut room is made for other trees to grow that will also reach maturity and be cut, if they are protected from fire, disease and insects.

Many wood-using industries today are taking proper care of the forest and cutting the trees wisely so that other trees will grow up. As this practice continues we will have trees growing forever to make the products we need in our daily lives.

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STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

CARBON DIOXIDE — a heavy colorless gas, composed of one part carbon and two parts oxygen. It is one of the gases in the air.

DORMANT — sleeping; not in action; in this instance the period when a tree is not growing.

CHEMICAL LABORATORY — a laboratory where substances are studied for their parts, and changes they undergo.

STARCH — a white, odorless, tasteless, granular or powdery, complex carbohydrate composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in varying amounts.

ANNUAL RING — one year's growth as seen in a cross section of a tree trunk. It contains both springwood and summerwood growth of the same year.

CLOSE GRAIN — wood having narrow annual rings that are hard to see.

FINE TEXTURE — wood having small, even cells which have thin walls and are closely-spaced.

GROWING SEASON — the period of the year in which a tree grows, usually during spring, summer and fall.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name two means by which seeds are scattered.

2. In what part of the tree is food manufactured?

3. What do the roots do for the tree?

4. What is the difference between heartwood and sapwood?

5. What is the cambium layer?

6. What four things does a tree need to grow?

SOME THINGS TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON

1. Plant an acorn in the soil and watch it grow.

2. Cut a cross section of a tree trunk. Locate the annual rings, the sapwood, heartwood, inner and outer bark.

3. Study a seedling. Note the roots, the stem, the leaves and branches.

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Chapter Four

IMPORTANT TREES OF THE APPALACHIAN HARDWOOD REGION

In the Appalachian Hardwood Region there are over 60 different kinds of trees that grow large enough to make lumber. Roughly one-half are hardwoods, but lumber production is about 70 percent hardwoods and 30 percent softwoods. Not all plants with woody stems are trees. Only those that reach a height of over 20 feet when full grown, have one trunk and a well-formed crown are called trees. Other woody plants are called shrubs.

In this chapter we will study a few of our important trees that are valuable as lumber. Trees are divided into two main groups — the conifers or softwoods and the hardwoods. Conifers bear their seeds in cones, while hardwoods sometimes have a fruit similar to a cone, but usually have seeds in the form of nuts, like the oak, or in the form of fruit, like the cherry.

When the cones of the conifers ripen, the scales that make up the cone and hold the seed, open and let the seed scatter over the ground or be carried to a distant area by the wind. Conifers have long, narrow, needle-like leaves which usually stay on the tree the year round even in winter. Conifers include the pine, fir, hemlock and cedar.

Hardwoods have broad flat leaves which usually fall off during the fall. Seeds fall to the ground and sprout there unless carried to another area by animals, birds, wind or water. Hardwoods include the oak, yellow poplar, maple and beech.

A beautiful sight in the forest is the color-fulness of the leaves on the hardwood trees in the fall. Many people travel long distances to see the red, yellow, orange and other colors wrought by nature at this time of the year.

The names "hardwood" and "softwood" are used because the broadleaf trees generally have harder

wood than the conifers. There are exceptions to this rule. For example, the wood of some of the yellow pine (softwood) is harder than basswood or yellow poplar (hardwood).

The Appalachian forest is remarkable for the variety of hardwoods found in it. Except

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for about four species that prefer the warm moist lowlands of the south, and one or two others found in the cold north, every commercial hardwood of the United States is at home in the Appalachian region.

Following are some details about hardwood trees; what they are used for; how they grow; and how to recognize them.

YELLOW POPLAR

One of the world's oldest trees is the yellow poplar. It is one of the tallest hardwood trees in America, sometimes reaching heights of 150 to 200 feet. Yellow poplar, or tulip as it is sometimes known, is not a true poplar. It belongs to the magnolia family.

For identification the tree has three-lobed leaves, with the top lobe square cut. It is like no other tree leaf in the forest. The leaves are four to eight inches long and almost that wide. Another unusual feature is the flower, which blooms in April or May. It is tulip-shaped with markings varying from yellow-green to orange. The name "tulip-tree" comes from this flower.

Yellow poplar makes its best growth on the deep, well-drained soils of the coves and on the lower slopes of the mountains. In the old stands, they are found as scattered individual trees. On cut-over land, where the mineral soil has been exposed, the tree will seed in and form pure stands. They can be seen easily in the spring as they are the first to put out leaves. This tree needs plenty of sunlight. The small branches that the sun's rays do not reach die and fall off. The trunk grows straight and clear. For this reason the lumber is of high quality and valuable. About one-third of the yellow poplar produced in this country comes from the Appalachian region.

THE OAKS

This is the most important hardwood family on the North American continent. In the United States there are about 75 different kinds. About 15 of these are found in the Appalachian Hardwood Region. White oak and red oak are the two main kinds. A characteristic of most oaks is their deeply-lobed leaves.

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WHITE OAK

These are the most valuable trees of the oak family. They grow over a large part of the region, but make their best growth on the north and east slopes of the higher ground and near the stream banks. They sometimes reach diameters of 7 to 9 feet and heights of 150 feet. White oak acorns ripen each fall, are sweet, and some species can be eaten. History tells us that Indians and early settlers used white oak acorns for food. Leaves of the white oak have rounded edges without points. The tree has light-grey bark. Other white oaks are the chestnut oak, the post oak and overcup oak.

The greyish-brown wood of the white oak which grows in the Appalachian Hardwood Region has a fine texture, close grain, beautiful design, and is quite easy to work. It is in great demand for high-grade furniture, paneling, interior trim and flooring.

RED OAK

Red oak differs from white oak in many ways. The leaves of red oak have sharp little bristles on the tips. The acorns require two years to ripen on the tree; are bitter and not good to eat. The bark is dark brown to black in color and often rough, with deep grooves running up and down or crosswise. Some well-known red oaks are: black oak, pin oak, southern red oak, and northern red oak. Red oak grows on higher slopes in mixture with the hickories, white oaks, and other kinds of trees.

The wood of the red oak is reddish-brown in color, and unlike the white oak, the pores are not stopped up. A piece of red oak wood one foot long can be blown through. It is used for structural timbers, flooring, furniture, trim and railroad ties.

BEECH

Beech is a wood that has recently come into its own as a marketable tree. In many lumber operations in the past, beech trees were not cut. The wood was hard and heavy. In earlier years

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the wood was hard to work with the equipment then available, and difficult to dry without checking and warping. The outstanding characteristic of the beech tree is the tight, smooth, light-grey bark. Everyone who has ever walked in a beech forest has probably carved his initials on the bark of the tree. Until a few years ago, a beech tree stood in Roane County, Tennessee, inscribed with "D. Boone cilld Bar on Tree 1769," which indicated Boone had killed a bear in the tree in that year. In bear country, claw marks are usually prominent on the bark where bears have climbed the tree to get the beech nuts.

The leaves are 4 to 6 inches long and 2 to 3 inches wide, tapering to a point at the top, with rough, spiny edges. The buds are also distinctive in that they have the appearance of miniature

cigars. The fruit is two small triangular nuts enclosed in a burr. The successive removal of other kinds of trees has resulted in many pure stands of beech in the region. These pure stands should be cut to give other kinds of trees a chance to grow.

Beech takes a high polish. Floors made of beech heartwood are beautiful, and the wood is used for factory floors, plane stocks, shoe lasts and handles. While beech will last indefinitely when kept dry, it is one of the least durable hardwoods when exposed to moisture for a long time. Many of the standing trees today are partly rotted away. Much of this rot is due to fires scarring the tree as the beech bark is thin and the tree easily damaged by fire.

SUGAR MAPLE

Sugar maple is a northern tree but it makes excellent growth at higher elevations of the Appalachian region. In the north country, where weather conditions are favorable, its sap is made into maple syrup and maple sugar. In the Appalachian region the tree grows to large size, and its lumber is valuable for many uses. Recognition of the tree is easy. The leaves, which .grow opposite each other on the branches, are about 5 inches long and about the same width. They are lobed like the fingers of your hand, and have smooth edges. In the fall they turn a beautiful scarlet and yellow color. The fruit is in the form of winged seeds which are made in pairs, usually only one containing a full grown seed. The ripe

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seeds fall from the tree in the autumn and are carried and spread by the wind over the countryside. Although some seeds are produced each year, at two and four year intervals "seed years" occur and the tree produces seed in large quantities. The wood of the sugar maple is hard and fine-textured. This is desirable in high-quality lumber, which is used for flooring, interior finish, furniture, shoe lasts, bowling pins and handles. A large part of the Appalachian maple wood is light colored.

BASSWOOD

This is an important, timber tree and makes its best growth in the Appalachian region. It grows best on deep, moist soils, and is often found in mixture with yellow poplar on the lower slopes and coves.

The leaves are broad, lopsided, oval-shaped, and come to a sharp point at the top. They are 5 to 6 inches long and 3 to 4 inches wide. A typical characteristic of the basswood is the fruit. It is small, round and nut-like, and hangs in clusters of from 3 to 7 on long stems attached to the branches. In some places basswood honey, which bees make from the flowers, is highly prized.

The name "basswood" comes from the "bast" or inner bark. Indians make rope by soaking the bark in water for several weeks, allowing the non-fibrous part to rot. Then the fibers are twisted into rope.

Basswood sprouts easily, and clumps of sprouts around an old stump are a familiar sight in the forest. The wood is soft, light and fine textured. It has many of the uses of yellow poplar such as interior trim, paneling, woodenware, picture molding, trunks and luggage.

In addition some of the evergreens of the Appalachian region are important. They follow:

HEMLOCK

Hemlock makes its best growth on the deep, well-drained soil along the banks of streams in the deep hollows of the mountains. It sometimes grows in pure stands, but more often in mixture with hardwoods and white pine.

The leaves are needle-like and flattened, and are about one-half to three-quarters of an inch long. Each needle has two parallel white

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lines lengthwise along its back. At the top of the tree is a limber terminal shoot which can be used as a natural compass, because it usually bends toward the northeast. The cones are one-half to one inch long when closed and nearly round when opened. The seeds are released in the winter and sprout in the early spring. Many seedlings can be seen growing on rotten logs and old stumps. The tree is able to bear considerable shade, and branches on the trunk last for many years. This causes hard, flinty knots on the wood. Considerable tannin is contained in the bark which is extracted to make tannic acid and used for tanning leather. Because the wood is strong it is used principally for construction purposes.

SPRUCE

Several kinds of spruce grow in the United States, but the only important kind growing in the Appalachian region is the red spruce. In this region it is found only on the high mountains above elevations of 3,000 feet where growing conditions are like those in the northern range where it also is found. At these higher elevations it grows in pure stands and makes its best growth in the mountains of West Virginia and North Carolina.

The needles are about one-half inch long, four-sided and stiff. The foliage feels sharp when grasped in the hand. The cones are about 2 inches long. Seeds are small and winged and are scattered in the fall and winter. They start to grow in the spring. Because the tree can stand a lot of shade it will seed in under stands of hardwoods. Also, because of its shallow root system, spruce is easily blown down by the wind.

In harvesting the trees, not more than one-third of the stand should be cut at any one time, or else the tract could be clear cut in strips. The wood is strong for its weight and is used in making boat oars and pike pole handles. Because it has a good resonance quality it is widely used for sounding boards in pianos and in violins. The wood is also used for aircraft veneer.

Other evergreens in the region are white pine, red cedar, and yellow pine.

STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

PANELING — panels are boards shaped for use

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in constructing a wall in a house or building.

VENEER — wood cut in sheets either by turning the log against a knife on a lathe, or slicing off thin sheets by moving a log up and down against a knife.

SPROUT — a tree that has grerwn from a stump or root.

MINE PROP — a post used in the coal mines to support the roof.

DURABLE — able to endure or continue in a particular condition; lasting; not perishable; does not decay easily.

CROSSTIES — wooden timbers on which railroad tracks are laid.

TREE — a woody perennial plant having a single main axis or stem (trunk), commonly exceeding ten feet in height and usually devoid of branches below, but bearing a head of branches and foliage or a crown of leaves at the summit.

CROWN — the top portion of a tree containing the leaves and branches.

RESONANCE — the ability of a material to intensify or enrich a sound by vibration.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What are some of the differences between evergreens and broadleaf trees?

2. Name some of the important hardwoods growing in our territory. Give some uses of each.

3. Head one column "white oak" and another "red oak." List the differences between the two.

4. Why is yellow poplar which grows in the Appalachian region one of our most valuable trees? Name two important products made from its wood.

SOME THINGS TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON

1. Collect leaves of five different trees. Get some printer's ink, a one-inch board about 12 inches square, and a rubber roller. Spread the ink over the board. Press the back of the leaf into the ink on the board, remove it and press on a piece of white paper and roll with roller. This will make a print of the leaf on the paper.

2. Collect small branches from several different species of trees. Cut them lengthwise down the center. Note how differently the pith is constructed in the various species.

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Chapter Five

PRODUCTS OF THE FOREST

Wood, a product of our forests, is a widely used and versatile material. Wood enters into our daily lives possibly more than any other substance. It appears not only in its original state but in other forms, made possible through chemical processes.

Wood and wood products are everywhere. Your books and pencils are made of wood. There is wood in your home, in your chair or desk at school, in the newspapers delivered to your homes. Wood may be seen in fence posts, telephone and electric light poles, houses, barns, and other buildings. Wood is used also for crossties for railroad tracks, boxcars, the manufacture of house and office furniture, the production of flooring, and other uses. In all, wood in its natural and converted state is used in more than 4,000 ways.

There was a time when we could recognize all products made of wood. This is no longer true. Modern science has brought us new and useful things — made of wood but not necessarily resembling wood in its original state.

The telephone receiver in your home is made of plastic. Fountain pens, many automobile accessories, radio cabinets, airplane turrets, bookends, ashtrays, and numerous other objects are made of plastic. Much of this plastic is a by-product made from wood.

During World War II wood became more important than ever before. The Germans used wood to make explosives, cloth for uniforms, feed for cattle, and gas with which to run automobiles. Japan recognized the importance of wood to our war effort. The one bomb the Japanese dropped on this country was an incendiary bomb aimed at our forests.

The fastest bomber used in the war was the English "Mosquito." The body and wings were constructed entirely of wood. The United States made the famous "P-T boats" of wood, and many of our large cargo planes were made of wood.

But, as we mentioned earlier the use of wood is not confined entirely to weapons of destruction. Today, we find wood is one of our most useful products to help make our lives comfortable.

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The growing conditions found in the Appalachian Hardwood Region produce wood that is called "fine textured and close grained." This property makes wood easy to work, gives a quality of "staying put" and an appearance of beauty when used in panels, flooring, furniture and inside trim.

"Appalachian" is the wood to ask for when these qualities are desired. Each tree of the following has qualities which make its wood especially desirable for certain special uses.

APPALACHIAN WHITE OAK

The Appalachian region produces white oak of high quality. It is strong, stiff, moderately hard, and is resistant to shock and wear, such as it receives in flooring. Because its growth rate is even, the wood structure is uniform and the wood has fine texture and a close grain pattern. It shrinks and swells little with changes in weather. These advantages make Appalachian white oak particularly suitable for the manufacture of fine furniture, flooring, paneling and cabinet work in which the quality of "staying put" is highly desirable.

APPALACHIAN RED OAK

The physical properties of red oak compare favorably with those of white oak. The two woods weigh about the same, but on the whole, red oak is not quite as hard or as strong. The principal difference is found in the structure of the wood. Red oak usually grows more rapidly than white oak and has, on the whole, wider annual rings and a somewhat more pronounced grain pattern. The pores in red oak are open and you can blow through a thin piece of the wood. The pores of white oak are filled with thin walled .cells. For this reason, red oak can be more easily treated with preservatives than white oak. This is a desirable quality when it is used for railroad ties or mine timbers.

Two different types of sawing are used to present different grain patterns in the oaks. The oaks not only have growth rings which make grain patterns, but also wide medullary rays.

In the plain sawing, the cut is made parallel to the annual rings and across the rays. This gives the familiar pattern in which the rings

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appear as wavy, or "U" shaped lines, with the rays as short dash lines.

In quarter sawing, the cut is made so that the annual rings form an angle of 45 degrees or more with the surface of the board. This results in the rings appearing as narrow parallel lines along the length of the wood and the rays appearing as rectangular blocks or broad wavy lines.

Plain and quarter sawn lumber are affected equally in shrinking and swelling but quarter sawn is affected less across the width of the board.

APPALACHIAN YELLOW POPLAR

This wood has a fine texture, and is straight with close grain. It is moderately strong, hard and light in weight when kiln dried. Its heart-wood is greenish-yellow in color and durable when used for painted exterior millwork. Appalachian poplar is unexcelled as a hardwood from the standpoint of being worked. It is easily seasoned and can be worked into sizes and shapes with smooth surface and edges. It keeps its shape and size after being milled. These qualities have made it one of our choice cabinet woods.

The wood absorbs glue evenly, resulting in strong joints. It is also one of our best woods for painting and enameling.

Appalachian yellow poplar is used for core stock, counter tops, shelving, paneling and other similar wide surfaces. It is widely used for house siding, door and window casing, all types of furniture and cabinet work, and in industrial arts and vocational school classes.

APPALACHIAN BEECH

Appalachian beech is a hard, strong wood with fine uniform texture and close grain pattern. In the log a narrow, light-colored ring of sapwood surrounds the reddish-brown heartwood, both of which can be finished attractively.

With the development of new methods in drying and handling beech lumber, many of the difficulties resulting in checking and warping have been eliminated. Beech is now much more in demand for flooring and furniture than it was once.

Beech has excellent wearing qualities. A floor of beech heartwood is both beautiful and

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serviceable. Furniture manufacturers who wish to offer economy and long wear in their product could think seriously of using Appalachian beech. Other important uses are broom and mop handles, dishes, bowls, clothespins, brush handles and toys.

Many other fine woods are grown in the Appalachian region. A partial list includes: white ash, cherry, hickory, hard maple, soft maple, yellow birch, basswood and butternut. All occupy an important place in the hardwood lumber industry, and Appalachian hardwoods are often specified

when high quality woods of fine texture are desired. STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

GROWING CONDITIONS — the combination of soil and climate which together affect the development of trees.

ABRASION — the act of wearing something away by friction.

MEDULLARY RAY — narrow lines showing in the cross section of a log, fanning out from the center like the spokes of a wheel.

KILN DRIED — wood which has been placed in a heating device designed to remove most of the moisture.

SEASONED — subjected to drying.

MILLING — put through wood working machinery.

CHECKING — splits and cracks in boards resulting from improper drying.

CORE STOCK — the interior bands of wood in plywood.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name some important war materials made from wood.

2. What are wood plastics?

3. Name five important woods which come from trees of the Appalachian region.

4. Name three characteristics which make these woods so desirable for the use to which they are put.

SOME THINGS TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON

1. Collect some samples of plain sawn and quarter sawn white oak.

2. Try to collect a sample of each of the woods found in the Appalachian Hardwood Region.

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3. Look at your school desks and floors. What kind of wood are they made of?

Chapter Six

CARE OF OUR FORESTS

Coal mining is the livelihood of a large number of persons in the Appalachian Hardwood Region. The lumber industry also provides a living for many workers in the area. Large quantities cf timber are required to mine coal and keep the sawmills running. To insure a future supply of needed forest products, adequate fire control and sound forestry practices are necessary.

The development and maintenance of a forestry program is a job for private industry. The Appalachian Hardwood Region is an area well suited by soil, climate and topography to the growing of timber. With proper forestry measures, these timber stands will renew themselves and maintain an adequate supply of wood to meet the demands of the vast coal and lumber industries located within the region. With this thought in mind, the Appalachian Hardwood Manufacturers, Inc., has established a Forestry Division. It has invited into membership not only the producers of Appalachian hardwood lumber, but landowners and coal operators, as well, who have a vital interest in the proper use of available timber.

The forestry program, like other progressive developments, has several aims: first, to establish good forestry practices on the lands of the members; second, to support legislation on a state level favorable to forestry, the lumber industry and related activities; third, to obtain a larger membership so the work can be increased; and fourth, to establish a research program that will give us the answers to many of our problems and show the value of forestry practices in the woods.

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To be successful, a forestry program must

be sold to three groups: the landowners, the loggers and the tax assessors. To be practical, it must be worth the money invested in it.

In the establishment of a forestry program, the first consideration is the control of forest fires. This is a job best accomplished by state forestry organizations established for the purpose. The Forestry Division of the Appalachian Hardwood Manufacturers, Inc., is supporting programs which will efficiently man, equip -and finance these state organizations to prevent and suppress forest fires in the several states within the Appalachian Hardwood Region. Cooperative agreements between landowners and operators and the state organizations are encouraged.

By watching forestry demonstrations, lumbermen can learn proper cutting practices. These practices must maintain a balance between maximum growth of trees and the needs of the operator. Through good forestry practices, we make sure we get the greatest amount of wood from the trees and the most and best trees from the soil. Foresters show us how stands of trees should be harvested so that we will always have enough trees to supply our needs.

We produce more wood from the soil on small trees left to grow than from seedlings or sprouts after clear-cutting. In developing long-time plans for cutting the timber, trees can be selected for cutting which will give the operator an economic cut, supply the needs for coal or lumber production, and leave a stand of smaller trees that will insure a future cut. when the current logging operation is completed, the roads should be seeded with grass. Then rainfall and running water will not wash the road away. If this is done, the road will be ready for use on the next cut, and very few repairs will be necessary.

When the trees are marked for cutting, the forester's job is only half done. Full utilization of the wood in the trees is necessary. We cannot recommend forestry measures to be followed unless we can also show the logger how he can carry them out and make money from his operations. In the old stands of virgin timber, births and deaths of trees were constant and resulted in little change in the total volume of wood in the forest. These virgin stands of timber contained

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many large trees. In order to harvest them, special equipment was needed. The removal of these large trees was necessary in order to get the stands of timber in shape to practice forestry.

Today, in our second-growth stands of timber, we have an entirely new forest economy and must adapt our tools, our equipment, our operating methods and our thinking to meet the new situation. We have many problems before us that did not exist in the operation of the stands of virgin timber. In some stands of pole-size timber we have the job of thinning to increase the growth on the area. In others, the problem is to remove large, defective trees in order to put the stand in. proper condition to practice forestry on a sustained yield basis.

In the Appalachian Hardwood Region natural conditions vary so widely that no general set of rules can be set up to cover all forestry and marking practices in the area. By field demonstrations and educational programs showing cutting practices and logging methods under different conditions, we can show the best practices to be followed under the different conditions represented. In coal mines, wood decays quickly. In order to prevent this, the wood is treated with chemicals. This makes the mine timbers last longer. Therefore, treated timbers do not have to be replaced as often as untreated wood, and the volume of wood required to mine the coal is reduced. Considerable money for labor is also saved when the timbers do not have to be replaced. By leaving the smaller trees to grow in the woods, we produce the most volume of wood from the soil and the most lumber for each day of labor. In harvesting only the larger trees, we also increase the quality of our product and insure a future crop. Forestry is a sound investment on which good returns can be expected.

STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

FORESTER — a man who has been trained in the care and use of the forest. Men go to forestry colleges to become foresters, just as men go to college to become doctors, lawyers, or engineers.

FOREST MANAGEMENT — to take care of a forest according to a plan.

THINNING — removing or cutting trees from stands of young timber that are growing too thick.

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SUSTAINED YIELD — management of the forest in such a way that the supply of timber will be maintained forever

SECOND-GROWTH TIMBER — the timber stands that have grown up since the virgin timber was cut off.

TREATED TIMBER — wood treated with chemicals to prevent decay.

HEADER — a piece of timber used crosswise in a coal mine to support the roof.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Who should develop a forestry program?

2. How can this be accomplished?

3. What should be its aims?

4. Why should we leave small trees to grow?

5. What is the basis for a large part of the economy of the Appalachian Hardwood Region?

6. How does this affect our forestry problems?

SOME THINGS TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON

1. Get one of the state foresters or a private forester to show you the work he is doing.

2. Talk to a lumber mill operator in your area. See how he cuts his timber and what products he makes.

3. Visit an area in your locality which has been cut-over within the past ten years. See if reproduction is coming in. See if fire has been kept out.

Chapter Seven

ANIMALS OF THE FOREST

No story of the forest would be complete without mention of deer, bear, fox, squirrel, rabbit, fish and other animals and birds which make the forest their home. Many of these animals live in the forested mountains and streams of the Appalachian region, roam freely, and are known as wildlife.

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Few Indians made the Appalachian region their home, but many used it as a hunting ground. Game was abundant in the region, and it made a fine place to hunt and fish. Some wildlife, such as fox, mink, raccoon, beaver, opossum and muskrat are valuable for their fur, and were a source of money for the early settlers and hunters. Animals and birds were used for food by pioneers on the march and by the early settlers until they could harvest their first crops. The Indians had already found uses for pelts and meats of different animals roaming the woods, and the pioneers learned to use these in the same manner. The coonskin cap and the buckskin shirt and breeches became a mark of distinction of early settlers and pioneers of the region.

Our forests have changed. The Indians have gone. Cities, highways and railroads have been built in the area, and part of the land has been cleared for farms. The area in which wildlife can roam has been reduced by all these changes. As might be expected, the game population in some places has been greatly reduced. However, it was recognized early that through proper management, the desired population, like the forests, could be kept large. Refuges were set aside for animals and birds. Here the wildlife could be safe and find good food and cover and a place to raise their young. Also, game laws were passed which set open seasons and limited the number of animals which any one hunter could take in a season. These rules were made so that wildlife and birds would not be killed or disturbed during the time when they were rearing their young. Also, hunting and fishing seasons were established so that the meat of the animals is in the best condition for eating at the time they are legally killed.

Wildlife is native to the land. The animals get most of their food and shelter from the forests and nearby lands. Therefore, in planning how to handle our forests to get the most and best timber, we must think about the animals who live in the woods.

Animals are a valuable source of income to

the states in which they live. State laws require people to have licenses before they can hunt. Through the sale of these licenses, the state game departments often pay their expenses

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and do not have to depend upon money from taxes to carry on their work. Animals and birds are also important because they destroy many insects and other enemies of the forest and field.

Animals and birds have still another value to you and me: recreation. Have you ever spent some of your free hours watching birds or animals? Have you ever taken pictures of them in their natural surroundings? Or, have you ever had the sport of pitting your woodcraft against that of a deer, bear or bird in hunting them in the forest? It is great sport. The ruffed grouse is and upland game bird and its quick flight and whir of wings is a familiar sight to all hunters. In the spring, the male grouse often can be heard drumming on a log in the forest. The ruffed neck and fanned tail give this bird a striking appearance.

In addition to the game animals, many birds are present in the forest: the bluejay, woodpecker, wood thrush, owl, chickadee, junko and others. These birds are helpful to the forest because they live largely on insects which damage or destroy some of our forest trees.

Some animals are known as predators. Predators are animals or birds which destroy game animals. Some of the common predators are foxes, wildcats, house cats which are allowed to roam the woods, and certain hawks. Some of these animals also kill pests, such as rats, so they are not all bad in their habits. Predators also help to control the game population of the forest. If too many animals are present, food becomes scarce and many will die of starvation, especially in the rough mountains where winters are severe.

All of the animals and birds which we have talked about roam freely in nature. The forests and fields are their home.

STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

GAME OR WILDLIFE — those animals native to the field and forest.

REFUGE — an area set aside in which wildlife is protected from hunters.

NATIVE — living in a place where one was born.

RECREATION — some form of play or amusement. A change from one's usual work.

PREDATORS — animals or birds which kill game, either for food or just for the joy of killing.

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PELT — skin and fur of a fur-bearing animal. REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name some wildlife native to your state.

2. How did the early settlers make use of the wildlife of the forest?

3. How has the development of the country affected wildlife?

4. Name some of our native birds.

5. What is a wildlife refuge?

SOME THINGS TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON

1. Talk to the local game warden or game protector. Ask him about wildlife and how it is managed.

2. See if you can find some furs. Try to learn to identify the different kinds. A local trapper or a fur store could show you some.

3. As you walk through the forest, make a habit of looking for animal tracks. Learn to identify them.

Chapter Eight

TREES — FLOODS, SOIL AND CLIMATE

Besides furnishing wood, forests are important to man in many other ways. Forests prevent soil erosion ana floods and help maintain a plentiful water supply.

Trees, in the Middle West, are planted in long rows called shelterbelts to protect croplands from wind damage. Tree roots thread their way down into the ground holding soil particles together so that they will not wash or blow away.

Tree roots also make the soil porous, enabling it to absorb water, thereby preventing rapid "run-off." In spring and summer, tree leaves catch rain drops as they fall, slowing down their

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speed. This allows more water to soak into the ground.

To see how important this is, go out in the country and look at a bare place on a hillside where there are no trees or plants to catch the rainfall. There you will see ditches or gullies caused by rapid run-off of water. This is called "erosion."

Next, look at a wooded hillside. You will find it free from gullies and ditches. When plowed, these steep hillsides will yield crops for a year or two. However, the soil soon is washed away and a new area has to be cleared. It may take nature many years to replace the soil washed away in a single summer rainstorm.

In speaking of erosion it is important to know the difference between soil and sub-soil. Soil is the weathered portion of the earth's, surface that contains plant food in usable form. Minerals and water, found in the sub-soil underneath, may not be in a form plants can use as food.

When water is allowed to run off too rapidly, it not only cuts gullies but also causes floods as hundreds of little streams merge into swollen rivers. These are sometimes called "flash floods." Most flash floods can be prevented through proper use of land and by maintaining forest cover at the headwaters and on hillsides.

Farmers fertilize soil to get the best results from plants they grow. In the forest no fertilizer is needed. Each year leaves and branches fall to the ground and rot leaving a soft, spongy layer called "humus." Humus enriches soil with food which speeds tree growth. It also provides a fine place for seeds to sprout and grow. Because it is porous, the humus layer helps to hold water in the soil.

While forests probably have little effect on the overall climate of a region, they do influence and modify some weather conditions. Forests, for example, protect an area from strong ground winds. Forests are cooler in summer and

warmer in winter than nearby open land that is unprotected. Animals take advantage of the protection forests provide against wind and temperature extremes.

Each gives and takes products necessary for survival. Trees take carbon dioxide out of thin air and give off oxygen as waste. This oxygen

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helps maintain the supply men and animals breathe. In their life processes animals also produce waste which is available to trees as food. Although plants and animals are in a constant struggle for survival, they depend upon each other in many ways. This is called a "balance of nature."

Somewhere near your home is a place where drinking water is stored and purified. The humus layer that trees build up and protect, helps maintain this water supply. In un-wooded, open areas people usually plant trees around reservoirs, springs and wells.

There is a permanent supply of water under the ground. The height of this supply is called the "water table." Its depth beneath the surface varies in different areas. Under a stand of trees the water table is usually closer to the surface than in open land. Underground water is the source of water in wells.

Well kept forests protect soil from erosion, prevent floods and help maintain a plentiful supply of water. All these services are important factors in shaping our daily lives.

STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

HEADWATERS — the place in the mountains where streams start.

GULLY — a ditch worn by water.

HUMUS — the top layer of forest soil containing rotted leaves and decayed wood which fall from trees.

FOLIAGE — the leaves of the trees.

FERTILIZER — food which plants need to grow.

OXYGEN — one of the gases in the air which is essential for the life of all living things.

CARBON DIOXIDE — one of the gases in the air made up of one part carbon and two parts oxygen. It is essential to plant life.

POROUS — full of small holes through which water can pass. Spongy.

WATER TABLE — the level under the ground at-which permanent water is found.

FLASH FLOOD — a flood of water which rises and falls quickly.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. What has been done to protect farm lands in the Middle West?

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2. Why should steep hillsides not be used for crop land?

3. How do trees purify the air?

4. How do cities protect their water supply?

5. How does a forest fertilize the soil?

6. Besides furnishing us with wood, what other service does a forest offer?

SOME THINGS TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON

1. Visit the plant and area from which your town receives its water supply.

2. Pour water over a plain board. Watch it run off.

3. Pour water over a board covered with a blanket or blotter. See how it is absorbed. This blanket or blotter represents the spongy portion of the soil found under a stand of trees.

4. As you walk in the forest in summer, notice how much cooler it is than in an open field.

Chapter Nine

FOREST ENEMIES

All living things are in a constant struggle for survival. When a plant or animal becomes weakened, it is attacked and sooner or later killed.

One of the forest's greatest enemies is fire. Man, through ignorance, carelessness or pure meanness, causes most fires.

In selectively cut stands of timber, only the larger trees are removed while the smaller ones are left to grow. Selective cutting increases good production, and means more high quality lumber. In selective cutting, less slash is left on the ground after logging. This lessens the danger of fire starting in the woods.

When a stand of timber is clear-cut, we must depend upon the soil, seeds and sprouts to restock the land with trees. While clear-cutting yields many logs it does not permit the best possible production from the soil. If fire burns over a clear-cut area there may be no future tree harvest.

The heavy cover of limbs and tree tops, called "slash," which results from clear-cutting normally decays into the soil. This makes fine fertilizer which the new crop, of trees will need for food. However, when a fire burns over the forest right after it is clear-cut, slash, humus in the soil, seedlings and sprouts all are destroyed. If this happens the land cannot produce another crop of trees for many years. With the humus destroyed and trees removed, water, in times of heavy rainfall, runs off rapidly cutting deep gullies. Destruction of the land, begun by fire, becomes complete.

Whenever fire burns, young growth is killed and larger trees are damaged. Wood growth is reduced and fire scars are left on the trunk and in some cases far up the tree. These scars occur on the uphill side of the tree where heat is greatest. The bark is destroyed, exposing the wood to the attack of insects and decay. The amount of good-quality wood available from the tree is considerably reduced. People who purposely set fire to the forest to get even with someone or to do harm are called willful woods burners. They may be arrested and fined or sent to prison because it is against the law to set fire to another man's woods.

Some people, through ignorance, set fire to the woods to make the grass greener, or to kill snakes and ticks. Actually, fire has little effect on ticks and snakes, but it does rob the soil of minerals and humus. Though the land may look greener after a fire it grows a poorer kind of grass, which has little actual food for cattle.

Cattlemen know that stock pastured in a forest do not put on weight nor grow into valuable beef like those raised on grass pasture.

Some people start fires through carelessness. All of us are careless at some time or other. However, this does not relieve us of responsibility for the results of our acts. People who fail to put out camp fires, those who drop lighted matches, cigarettes, cigars or pipe heels in the woods, or persons who leave brush fires burning, are careless. All of them start forest fires.

Whatever the cause, the results of fire are thfe same — destruction and damage to the forest. All of us depend upon products of the forest. Coal miners need wood to mine coal, and industry needs coal for power to run factories. The jobs

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of sawmill workers depend on an adequate timber supply. When fire burns a forest, part of the source of their livelihood is destroyed.

There are other enemies of the forest, too. Cattle, sheep and hogs, when allowed to roam in the woods in large numbers, destroy young seedlings by eating tender branches or rooting them up. They also trample and pack the soil so it will not absorb water. Then the forest floor becomes too dry. This shortage of water even slows the growth of large trees which have their foliage beyond the reach of livestock.

Insects and disease also attack trees. Probably the disease most familiar to people in the Appalachian region is the fungus called "Chestnut Blight." This disease attacks the cambium layer of the tree, eating its way entirely around the trunk. Then the tree dies. Older residents can remember when chestnut trees comprised a large part of the hardwood stands of the country. The gathering and roasting of chestnuts in the fall was a popular event. In about 20 years, 1920 to 1940, the disease killed nearly all chestnut trees in this area.

Except for isolated cases, no other attacks by insects and fungi of epidemic proportions have occurred in the Appalachian region. However, eternal vigilance is essential to keep these pests out of the forests.

Weather sometimes can be a forest enemy, too. Snow and ice bend or break branches and tree trunks. Hurricanes sometimes even blow trees down. Lightning also strikes and kills trees, but, except for fires which it starts, damage is usually minor.

Ignorant and careless people who start fires and allow them to burn are the forests' main enemy. Children should learn now to take care of the forests and prevent fires from occurring.

STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

NATURAL RESOURCE — one of the necessities of life which nature gives to man.

FUNGUS — a plant which gets its food and life from other plants.

CLEAR-CUT — removal of all trees from an area.

EPIDEMIC — a condition in which many trees are attacked by the same disease at the same time.

SELECTIVE CUTTING — removal of mature timber, usually the oldest or largest trees, either as

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single scattered trees or in small groups. These are removed at short intervals of 5 to 20 years. Repeated again and again natural reproduction is encouraged and a growing stand of timber of varying ages is maintained.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the enemies of the forest. Was it necessary to clear some land? Explain.

2. Why is it a bad thing to cut all trees from the woods? Give three reasons.

3. How do most woods fires start?

4. Name five enemies of the forest. How do they injure trees?

5. When does weather become an enemy of the forest?

SOME THINGS TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON

1. Try to find two adjacent forest areas: one in which all the trees were cut and one in which only part of the trees were cut. Study the difference .

2. Find an area in the forest which has been burned. See if the young trees and soil have been harmed. Find out how the fire started.

3. Try to find two stands of timber: one in which cattle have grazed and one in which they have not. Note the difference.

Chapter Ten

FOREST GUARDIANS

Lumbermen are among the principal guardians of America's vast forest resources. They see the need for growing trees for use.

It is as impractical for landowners to have individual organizations for protection against fire as it is for home owners. Therefore, protection work against fire is done on a basis of

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cooperation, largely through private individuals or organizations with state and federal governments. Landowners through taxes and assessments pay the cost of these government forest protection services. Private organizations, supported by the landowners, also help in the forest fire control programs.

To protect forests the fire control agencies build towers from which lookouts locate and report fires. They also organize fire crews, equip them with tools and teach them how to fight and put out forest fires. The title, "State Forester," is usually given the man in charge of the state forest fire control organization. His office is in the state capital. He usually has one assistant to direct fire control work and another for forest management. The state is divided into districts, each with a forester in charge. Districts in turn are divided into fire control units, with rangers in charge. Rangers usually are full-time employees.

During fire season, local men volunteer or are hired as fire fighters. When a fire occurs, they are ready to get to it quickly and put it out. When not fighting fires they maintain tools, roads, trails and telephone lines. An efficient, well-manned, adequately-equipped and financed state-wide organization provides better fire protection than is otherwise possible.

Operators working on their own land also may have cooperative agreements with the states. Besides furnishing tools and equipment the state trains the landowners' employees to quickly control fires when they occur. In recent years these state forest protection organizations have made great progress.

Educational programs, designed to prevent fires and control them more quickly, have done much to cut down both the number and size of forest fires. The problem, however, is not licked. All of us must be alert to hold the gains which have been made. You can help by always being careful with fire and by putting out small fires when they start.

Extension departments of state agricultural colleges also have forestry programs. Most of their work is with farmers. Their educational and demonstrational programs encourage wise woods use. The U. S. Forest Service and the Soil Conservation Service also are active in this work.

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In the Appalachian region many private companies have their own forestry programs directed by professional foresters. Good forest management is now a sound Investment on which good returns can he expected. Both state and private foresters are bringing their programs to the attention of landowners and others by means of lectures, wood lot demonstrations and pictures.

Perhaps you would like to know how forest fires are discovered and reported, and how men fight them?

Each state has a network of lookout towers located on high ground. From these towers men watch for rising smoke, always the first sign of a woods fire. "Permanent smokes" caused by trains, factories or dwellings are spotted on the towerman's map so he will not mistake them for forest fires. A towerman learns to distinguish between smoke from a wild fire and smoke from other sources. When smoke from a wild fire is spotted, the towerman telephones a dispatcher in headquarters who telephones the fire crew telling them where the fire is located and the quickest way to get there. In some areas radios are used instead of telephones.

As soon as a fire crew gets the message, it rushes to the fire. There the leader puts his men to work in the spot where the fire can most quickly be controlled. Then he looks for evidence as to how the fire started, and who started it. If necessary, criminal action may be brought against the individual responsible.

The leader of the fire fighting crew also sizes up the fire and determines whether he has enough men to handle it. If not, he calls back to headquarters and requests additional help. If his own crew can handle the fire, he also reports that fact.

To halt the spread of a fire the control crew plows or clears a ring around it, removing all inflammable material. Crew members work their way through the burned area, putting out fires in logs, brush or other material that might throw sparks over the line. When all the fire has been extinguished inside the ring a few men are left to guard it. The rest of the crew returns to headquarters. There the leader checks all tools and reorganizes his forces to handle another fire should one occur. Later in the day he examines the fire and, if it is all out, brings the rest

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STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

FOREST NURSERY — a place where forest trees are raised from seed for planting in denuded areas which will not seed naturally.

REFORESTATION — the act of planting trees by hand. Where new trees grow up without man's help in planting, it is called natural reforestation.

LOOKOUT TOWERS — steel or wooden towers located on high ground from which people locate and report forest fires.

RESEARCH — the carrying-out of experiments to establish new facts, or prove existing theories.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name four organizations working in forest conservation in your state.

2. Briefly describe the work of your state forestry agency. Where are its offices?

3. Describe how forest fires are fought.

SOME THINGS TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON

1. Learn the name of your district forester. Learn the name of your county ranger. Invite them to talk to your class some day. Tell them you would like to see their trucks and equipment.

2. Visit an area with the district forester where timber has been marked for cutting. Find out how marking is done.

Chapter Eleven

LOOKING TO THE FUTURE

The forestry program private enterprise has established and now carries forward makes the outlook bright for our future timber needs. The forest industries have adopted new tools and methods. They are cutting timber for today's needs and growing trees for tomorrow.

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STUDY OF WORDS IN THE TEXT

FOREST NURSERY — a place where forest trees are raised from seed for planting in denuded areas which will not seed naturally.

REFORESTATION — the act of planting trees by hand. Where new trees grow up without man's help in planting, it is called natural reforestation.

LOOKOUT TOWERS — steel or wooden towers located on high ground from which people locate and report forest fires.

RESEARCH — the carrying-out of experiments to establish new facts, or prove existing theories.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Name four organizations working in forest conservation in your state.

2. Briefly describe the work of your state forestry agency. Where are its offices?

3. Describe how forest fires are fought.

SOME THINGS TO DO AFTER STUDYING THIS LESSON

1. Learn the name of your district forester. Learn the name of your county ranger. Invite them to talk to your class some day. Tell them you would like to see their trucks and equipment.

2. Visit an area with the district forester where timber has been marked for cutting. Find out how marking is done.

Chapter Eleven

LOOKING TO THE FUTURE

The forestry program private enterprise has established and now carries forward makes the outlook bright for our future timber needs. The forest industries have adopted new tools and methods. They are cutting timber for today's needs and growing trees for tomorrow.

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Births and deaths of trees on old stands of virgin timber occurred evenly. From year to year there was little change in volume of wood in the forest. To the people of America it seemed the supply of wood was endless. Timber was cheap. Only the finest quality wood from the best species was salable. Forestry was a little known science, and there was little incentive to use it in the woods.

There is little opportunity to practice forestry in a virgin stand. Large, over-mature trees must be removed first to put the forest in proper shape for a forestry program to begin. Trees in a second growth stand make rapid growth.

We have come to think of timber as a crop. Trees now are harvested systematically, like other land crops. Second-growth timber stands along with hundreds of new uses for wood have completely changed the forest economy of the country. Today, forests are more valuable, and forestry is more practical than ever before. Most landowners and timber operators realize that cutting small trees for lumber is a high cost operation. Small trees produce low grade, low priced lumber

We have learned many things about forestry that were unknown a generation ago. We know how to grow trees, how to protect them and how to get the best wood harvest. Research in the physical characteristics of wood has developed many new uses, making forest products more valuable. Today there is more incentive to grow trees. If.woodlands are managed wisely, the owners can expect good returns from their trees.

One of the programs private industry sponsors to encourage good forest practices in the United States is the American Tree Farm System. A Tree Farm is a plot of ground on which the owner grows, protects and harvests trees. Owners who manage their woodlands wisely receive certificates. Most Tree Farms are marked with signs. Today there are more than 2200 Tree Farms in the United States. More are being established every year.

In 1930 about 300 foresters were employed by private industry. Today, nearly 3,000 trained

leaders work for industry to protect the nation's timberland.

Private industry recognizes the importance of forests. It is prepared and able to protect to insure America's future timber needs.

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    Publications of American Forest Products Industries, Inc., 1319 Eighteenth St., N. W., Washington 6, D. C.:

TREES FOR TOMORROW
THE STORY OF FORESTS (booklet and filmstrip)
CHARTS:
WHERE WE GROW OUR TREES
PRODUCTS OF AMERICAN FORESTS
WOOL, THE VERSATILE MATERIAL
FIRE POSTERS

    National Lumber Manufacturers Association, 1319 Eighteenth St., N. W., Washington 6, D. C.:

OUR ABUNDANT FORESTS
AMERICA'S FOREST RESOURCES

Motion Pictures:
    TREES FOR TOMORROW (American Forest Products Industries, Inc.
    TIMBER GROWING TODAY (Tennessee Valley Authority, Dept. of Forestry Relations, Norris, Tennessee)
    THEN IT HAPPENED and IT'S NO PICNIC (U. S. Forest Service, Bankers Securities Bldg., Philadelphia 7, Pennsylvania)
    SOUTHERN HARDWOODS — YOURS FOREVER (Southern Hardwood Producers, Inc., Sterick Bldg., Memphis, Tennessee)